Notes: sociological theory, a set of interrelated ideas that provide a systematic understanding of the social world.
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The vineyard and village views represent macro sociology, a level of analysis focusing on social systems and populations on a large scale. The meadow is an example of micro sociology, a level of analysis focusing on individuals and small groups within the larger social system.
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conflict theory, a sociological perspective emphasizing the role of political and economic power and oppression as contributing to the existing social order (HP).
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Émile Durkheim (1858-1917), a French sociologist. credited with developing the discipline of sociology and conducting the first large-scale sociological study. His theory is referred to as functionalist theory, a macro view of how the parts of society serve to maintain stability (HP).
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FUNCTIONS/PARTS (DURKHEIM): The parts primarily function in three ways. First, there are manifest functions, intentional and formally sanctioned functions of social institutions and society. Latent functions, unintentional and informally sanctioned functions of social institutions and society. This type of incident creates dysfunction, the undesirable disruptions of social patterns resulting in negative consequences within society (Poggi 2000; Jones 1986).
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American sociologist and philosopher George Herbert Mead (1863-1931), developed the theory of the socialized self, which states that the self cannot develop apart from society (Miller 1973; Morris 1934). His theory is referred to as symbolic interaction, a micro view of how society is the product of interactions between people, which occur via symbols that have distinct meanings (HP)
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DEVELOPED THE FIRST SOCIOLOGY DEPARTMENT IN CHICAGO (AND PERHAPS FIRST IN HISTORY)
social facts — social patterns that are external to individuals and greatly influence our way of thinking and behaving in society.
German sociologist Max Weber (pronounced “Vay-bur”) (1864-1920). He lived in a time when capitalism had spread across Europe, and a sense of cultural superiority was growing in Germany
Weber had a slightly different view from the previous three theories of how to study society, which he captured with the German term verstehen (vûrst e hen), an empathetic approach to understanding human behavior, loosely translated as understanding or interpretation.
*He was the first sociologist to combine the micro and macro, thus integrating social actions and social structures.
The feminist theory, a view on anti-oppression, gender relations, and gender inequality, evolved from the conflict theory and is an important contemporary sociological perspective.
applied sociology, the use of sociological theory, research, and methodologies to find solutions to problems in society.
queer theory, a critical view that rejects the traditional categories of gender, sex, and sexuality in contemporary society.
postmodern social theory, a critical view rejecting the historical, scientific, and structured means of investigating and interpreting the social world.
French sociologists Michel Foucault, Jean Baudrillard, and Jean-Francois Lyotard are largely responsible for promoting this new social theory that rejects the idea of positivism and the structured and systematic approaches found within traditional sociological theories (Mirchandani 2005).
The Age of Enlightenment (1700–1800) promoted the scientific method and challenged age-old traditions based on superstitions and religious faith, resulting in the restructuring of social institutions based on reason.
Max Weber wrote about these social changes and described them as the process of the rationalization of society, the replacement of traditional values and personal connections with bureaucracy, efficiency, and a means-end approach.
he Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the latter part of the 18th century as a result of the invention of the steam engine, improved smelting techniques for iron to make steel, and new machines within the textile industry.
Harriet Martineau, Jane Addams, W. E. B. Du Bois, and Robert Merton are sociologists who made significant contributions by analyzing the rapidly changing social structures in the U.S.
Harriet Martineau (1802-1876), an Englishwoman and the first female sociologist, visited the U.S. for a period of two years and later published Society in America (1837), which detailed American social structures, such as the political system, government, economy, and religion. he wrote, “When one studies a society, one must focus on all its aspects, including key political, religious, and social institutions.” Much of her observations while in the U.S. were focused on the American value system. She questioned whether Americans actually demonstrated observable social patterns of behavior that matched the espoused value system.
Jane Addams’ (1860-1935) work and lectures give her the distinction of being an applied sociologist, although she did not have a formal sociology degree. In 1889, she founded the Hull House, a settlement house that provided social services primarily for immigrants in Chicago. Addams recognized that the social structures within Chicago, including the government, education, and healthcare systems, were not supportive of the needs of poor immigrants. To remedy this, Addams established a safety net of social services. Addams was a charter member of the American Sociological Society in 1905.
W. E. B. Du Bois (1868-1963) was the first African American to earn a Ph.D. from Harvard University (1895) and co-founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909. Du Bois challenged the social structures within American society that perpetuated racism and discrimination in social institutions, such as the workplace, military, and education. His work is associated with conflict theory.
Robert Merton (1910-2003) is one of America’s most influential social scientists and sociologists and is noted as instrumental in formalizing the functionalist theory in his writings. In 1949, he published Social Theory and Social Structure (Merton 1968), which partly focuses on defining and categorizing bureaucratic structures. Weber, in Economy and Society (1922), popularized the term bureaucracy — a hierarchical authority structure that uses task specialization, operates on the merit principle, and behaves with impersonality (HP) Merton identifies bureaucracies as social structures, describing them as formal, rationally organized social structures consisting of a hierarchy of offices, authority, and formal relationships. In some circumstances, this can lead to bureaucratic red tape — adherence to excessive regulation and conformity that prevents decision-making and change (C-19) — occurring in government and large corporations.
People’s actions and reactions can be analyzed through sociological thinking, theory, and research. In particular, social problems, the societal conditions that harm segments of society, become less about personal feelings and more about measurable, evidence-based reality.
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- measuring objective conditions — the scope of a problem
- measuring subjective concerns — people’s feelings about a problem (C-19)
- evaluating the context within which the problem exists
- identifying potential policy solutions to the problem
human trafficking, a situation in which a person is smuggled, abused, and forced to work against their will for the economic gain of another.
Fair Trade, an organizational movement and certification process to help producers in developing countries receive a fair price for their products with the goals of reducing poverty, providing for the ethical treatment of workers and farmers, and promoting environmentally sustainable practices.
sustainability, the idea that current and future generations should have equal or greater access to social, economic, and environmental resources
sustainable development, development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, by offering more social resources for the marginalized growers and producers.
social inequality, the unequal distribution of power, property, or prestige in society.
An interesting dysfunction in welfare policy can be found by looking at what was known as the “man-in-the-house” rule (Williford 2011; U.S. Supreme Court 1968). This rule denied welfare benefits to women with children if there was evidence of a man in the house, regardless of his relationship to the children.
sociological imagination, the ability to see the details of our own lives in the context of larger social structures as opposed to merely personal choices or personal troubles (C-19).
Personal troubles, matters experienced at the individual level, are limited to areas of the social life of which you are directly and personally aware.
public issue, a matter that impacts society as a whole.
Looking at Durkheim’s work, we find that his concept of anomie, the breakdown of social values, norms, and order resulting in social instability, offers an effective tool to understand New Yorkers’ experience from a sociological perspective.
The level of interconnectedness that the pre-pandemic world relied on speaks to social change, the forces that change the organization and the social structures of society.
This compression of interaction is part of globalization, the worldwide integration of our cultural, economic, and political lives that results from ever-increasing levels of business, trade, and technology.