Notes:
Sociology : A scientific perspective
Goal of sociology is to: to use a systematic and scientific approach to investigate the interrelationships among human interactions to understand society better.
Auguste Comte developed the concept of sociology based on methods used in physical sciences.
Plants, animals, and human body were studied using scientific principles.
Comte wanted to understand society to provide solutions to a social , political, and moral issues after French Revolution.
Today: Sociologist conduct systematic research to analyze social trends, issues, and problems using SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE.
Step 1: Define the Question or Problem Not all sociological studies are focused on addressing social problems or topics that will directly benefit society. Sociologists study many topics that describe aspects of human behavior and society. As long as the research method is implemented correctly, virtually any subject you are curious about can be successfully studied sociologically.
Step 2: Review the Literature
involves investigating what has already been written about your chosen topic. This step requires more than just an internet search, as you are looking for academic sources that have undergone peer review, a process by which research is evaluated by a group of experts in the specific subject area. This ensures your sources are legitimate and reputable since they have gone through a strenuous process to determine if the scientific method was stringently followed
Step 3: Develop Hypotheses an educated guess about a relationship between two or more situations, events, or factors
purpose is to determine if the prediction is accurate and similar to thesis and its basis on scientific inquiry When developing the hypotheses, the independent variable, a factor that causes a change in another variable, and the dependent variable, a factor that is changed by another variable, are identified.
validity, the extent that the study measures what it claims to measure, is an important consideration. Validity ensures the researcher measures the intended variables outlined in the statement of the problem. Since validity is so crucial to the scientific method
operational definition, a clear, concise, and observable measure of the variable, of the term “bullying” so there is no misunderstanding of what constitutes
reliability, the extent to which a study yields the same result in repeated studies
Step 4: Choose a research design and method
determine which best fits ..
quantitative research design, data collection that focuses on exploring correlations by using systematic, numerical, and other objective measures to generalize across groups of people
qualitative research design, data collection using interviews, fieldwork, observation, photos, text, and other subjective measures
important to note that a hypothesis is not always relevant in a qualitative design. Often the goal is to better understand a particular concept, situation, group, or subculture rather than test hypotheses. Sometimes these qualitative studies generate hypotheses that can be explored using other methods.
representative sample, a subset of the population whose characteristics accurately reflect those of the larger population from which it is drawn.
Step 5: collect data
Institutional Review Board (IRB), a committee that reviews research proposals to protect the rights and welfare of human participants in research
informed consent, a signed statement by participants indicating full knowledge of the risks involved, and acknowledgment of the procedures to withdraw from the study at any time willingly, from everyone participating in the study.
Anonymity, concealing the identities of participants within the research project, and confidentiality, guarding who has the right of access to the data provided by the participants, are two basic ways to shield the participants from harm.
step 6: Analyze data
Think about step 1\\\\\\\”Define the Question or Problem\\\”
This step requires careful attention to detail and can be time-consuming but also the most fun. It is similar to putting the clues together to solve a Whodunit. Once this step is completed, it is time to develop conclusions based on the analyses.
step 7: Develop Conclusions
Based on your analysis, you can draw conclusions and, possibly, generalize and apply the results to a larger population. look back at step 3\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\”
Step 8: Report Results and Pose New Questions
conduct research to present the findings at conferences or publish the results in academic journals. Within the journal article or report, the researchers pose limitations, new questions, and recommendations for further consideration.
Structure of Research:
Requires a specific and fixed process..
Step 4: Choose a Research Design/Method, the research methods provide the structure for the scientific method. The method you choose will guide your research project.
Quantitative Research Methods
quantitative methods use systematic and numerical measures to make generalizations across groups of people
Advantages of Quantitative Research Methods:
Secondary Analysis:Existing data is plentiful and study can be conducted quickly
Surveys:Cost-effective and convenient
Experiments: More control over design and stronger validity and reliability
Longitudinal Studies: Provides broad and detailed data
Disadvantages of Quantitative Research Methods:
Secondary Analysis:Available data may not fit research questions
Surveys:inflexible design and potential low response rate
Experiments:Inability to generalize data
Longitudinal Studies: Expensive and requires a multi-year commitment
Secondary Analysis:
secondary analysis, the use of data previously collected for other purposes. He chose this method because he was interested in testing the hypothesis that suicide rates vary by marital status, military status, economic conditions, and religion (especially between Catholics and Protestants).
There are disadvantages to the secondary analysis method. Sometimes, the available data does not exactly fit your research question, and using it is like putting a square peg in a round hole. Existing data may be too old or may not cover the geographic area that your study covers.
Surveys:
survey, a series of questions used to extract specific information from respondents, can be an economical method that provides a quick turnaround, especially when conducted online. Due to its many benefits, the survey is the most widely used research method.
Surveys can help find real solutions to problems, but there are disadvantages, as with all research methods. First, the survey is an inflexible design. Often, researchers think of other questions they would like to ask after the survey is administered, but it is too late as questions cannot be added or deleted. Second, surveys often have a low response rate.
Experiments
experiment, the use of two or more groups in which one group is exposed to a factor being examined (HP), is more common among psychologists and medical researchers than sociologists.
experimental method consists of an experimental group, the study subjects exposed to the independent variable, and the control group, the study subjects who are not exposed to the independent variable and are used as a reference group. This method provides more control over the design and can substantially strengthen the study’s validity
Longitudinal Design
longitudinal design, the repeated observation of the same subjects over a duration of time, is a research method that can require years or decades to complete.
Qualitative Research Designs
Qualitative research designs are inquiry methods that provide a deeper understanding of social phenomena rather than a surface description of a population sample. These methods allow social meanings to emerge from the participants through first-hand experience and conversations. They do not impose treatments or manipulate variables but, instead, use observation to understand social behaviors
Qualitative Research Method Advantages
In-depth Interviews:Ability to explore different angles and levels
Participant Observation:Unrestricting access to observe social behavior
Focus Groups: Ease of implementation and quick results
Content Analysis:Does not involve human subjects and cost-effective
Qualitative Research Method Disadvantages
In-depth Interviews:Focuses on individuals and transcribing field notes can be time-consuming
Participant Observation:Difficult to document details and can potentially be unethical
Focus Groups: Groupthink can occur and moderators can skew the results
Content Analysis:Researchers must “read between the lines
In Depth interviews
the in-depth interview, a one-on-one open-ended method that probes for deeper meaning and understanding of the responses of the interviewee, is the method of choice.
this inquiry method can be useful and effective when dealing with sensitive topics like abuse, racism, and death.
Participant Observation
most controversial of all the research methods is participation observation, also called participant observation, a method in which the researcher takes part in the social phenomenon being studied.
A specific type of participant observation is called ethnography, a descriptive account of social life and culture in a particular social system derived from the researcher being embedded over time within a group, organization, or community.
Ethnographic work is a type of field research involving the researcher probing deeply into people’s everyday lives for an extended period to provide a complete picture of the lives of those in the group.
Robert K. Merton coined and developed the term focus group, a small group interview or guided discussion using a moderator to gain insight into the participants’ opinions on specific topics
groupthink, the tendency of group members to yield to the desire for consensus rather than expressing individual or alternative ideas.
Content Analysis
final qualitative research design is content analysis, a systematic method of assigning codes to text, video, music, and other media to analyze and infer patterns. Content analysis is an excellent tool to determine perceptions and portrayals of groups of people.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative Methods
The quantitative approach seeks to quantify data and generalize results from a sample to the population of interest. Qualitative research aims to uncover the underlying reasons, motivations, opinions, and prevalent trends among individuals, groups, and artifacts. The goal is not to generalize the findings to a larger population. The sample size within quantitative research is large and representative of a larger population, whereas the sample size of qualitative research is small and non-representative. The data collection for quantitative designs is structured and statistical compared to the more unstructured and non-statistical approach of qualitative designs. Quantitative research outcomes allow for policy and decision-making recommendations, while qualitative research is exploratory and investigative
Research and the Advancement of Sustainability:
Sustainability, the idea that current and future generations should have equal or greater access to social, economic, and environmental resources, is a local, national, and international issue
Data compiled from the General Social Survey (GSS), a national survey on contemporary American society to monitor and explain trends and constants in attitudes, behaviors, and attributes, can help us understand why Americans depend heavily on automobiles.
Problems with Sociological Research:
A research project’s success often hinges on the researcher’s ability to identify the causes and consequences of problems in the research design so appropriate responses can be implemented.
1. From homeless veterans to families living in shelters, poverty, as it relates to homelessness in society, is an issue that offers a range of areas to investigate. What are the causes of homelessness, and what structural issues are being addressed by public policymakers to reduce homelessness in the U.S.?
2.What is the impact of divorce on women’s level of poverty? What is the effect on children? Are children living in poverty more likely to be poor as adults, or do the majority overcome their circumstances?
3.How does poverty impact the elderly in the U.S. and in other countries such as Nicaragua? The Nicaraguans shown in this image have a healthcare system that is very different from the American healthcare system.
4.What are the educational opportunities for people with low incomes in countries worldwide? This photo depicts children in Laos who do not have the same textbooks, laptops, and air-conditioned classrooms as many other children in developed countries.
5.How does poverty in rural America differ from poverty in urban settings? For example, are there fewer job opportunities and social services to assist struggling families in rural areas? Where do people experiencing homelessness in rural areas stay on cold nights without homeless shelters that are available in all large cities?
snowball sampling, a process in which people in the group being studied introduce the researcher to other people to study
Research Challenges
Sociologists face issues ranging from questions about the honesty of research subjects to concerns over personal bias. Are people always honest? The obvious answer is a resounding “NO!”
Honesty and Ethics
Experienced researchers know that people sometimes respond to questions by saying what they think they should say instead of giving a truthful answer.
time diary method, a research method in which subjects track their actions at various points in time over several days
Hawthorne effect, the tendency of people to change their behavior when they know they are being watched.
ethics, principles of conduct about how you are supposed to behave in a given situation. Ethics in sociology underwent a significant transformation in the 1970s after several research studies forced the discipline to consider the rights and protections of research subjects
Humphreys should have had a debriefing, a follow-up review of the research, for his subjects to gain insight into the conclusions drawn from the study. If there had been greater consideration of the subjects’ welfare, more would have been done to ensure these fundamental steps were followed.
code of ethics, a set of guidelines of appropriate behavior established by an organization for its members to follow
Objectivity and Sample Selection
value neutrality, also known as objectivity, the effort to eliminate bias from the research
sample of convenience, a research sample based on the ease of accessibility of the research subjects.
More Than A Theory
Sociologists use theory to guide their research when addressing various societal issues and, hopefully, developing policies that benefit all.
Functionalist Theory: The school and criminal justice systems are examples of large-scale social structures that a sociologist might research from a functionalist perspective to see how they contribute to maintaining society’s stability.
Conflict Theory: Social inequality in socioeconomic status or race and ethnicity may play a role in boys’ differing crime rates. A sociologist who uses the conflict perspective would research this topic from the standpoint of competition and change.
Symbolic Interaction: Family and friends are often very involved in our everyday social lives and, as such, are an example of micro-level analysis. Therefore, symbolic interaction would consider the boys’ face-to-face interactions.
Applying the Sociological Imagination to Research Methods
The sociological imagination is about the relationship between the individual and society. In the research process, its role is to illuminate this relationship, but more specifically, to help us understand the impact of social forces on individuals’ lives
Case study, an in-depth analysis of a particular person, place, or event over a significant period.
Verstehen
verstehen (vûrst e hen), an empathetic approach to understanding human behavior
-Verstehen means that you take the time to understand the individuals’ experiences from their point of view.
Research Methods in a Changing Society
New Voices and Alternative Visions
Anna Julia Cooper (1858–1964) was a prominent African American author and educator. She was born into slavery, obtained her Ph.D. from the Sorbonne in Paris, and wrote A Voice from the South: By A Woman from the South, a title many see as the first example of Black feminism.
Beatrice Potter Webb (1858–1943) was an English sociologist whose tutors included British social theorist Herbert Spencer. Webb was a researcher and taught sociology. She coauthored eleven books in conjunction with her husband, Sidney, and was instrumental in the British welfare system’s social reform.
Sophonisba Breckinridge (1866–1948) was born into the Kentucky elite, attended Wellesley College, received her law degree, and was the first woman admitted to the Kentucky bar association. Breckinridge worked with the Chicago Hull-House project and eventually became a dedicated academic who wrote extensively on family and public welfare issues. Breckinridge went on to cofound the University of Chicago’s School of Social Service Administration.
Marianne Weber (1870–1954) was an important figure in the German feminist movement. She authored nine sociology and social analysis books and was the first woman elected to the German parliament. Upon her husband Max Weber’s death, she was instrumental in publishing ten of his works and authoring his biography.
The Problem
Liberal feminism contends that sex discrimination and sex-biased laws are a product of prejudice and stereotyping by society.
The Solution
Liberal feminism sees the reform of sex-biased laws as one aspect of the solution. Others include challenging sexism, improving rights, and expanding opportunities in society.
The Strategy
The range of strategies proposed by liberal feminism includes reducing gender roles, increasing education, removing discriminatory legislation, implementing laws that address sexism, and increasing resources to areas impacted by biological differences, such as childcare.
The Problem
Radical feminism argues that the root of the problem is the intersection of various types of oppression in society and men’s patriarchal control over women’s reproduction and sexuality.
The Solution
Radical feminism contends that the solution includes challenging the power structure in society, addressing the intersectionality of oppression, and liberating women from their reproductive roles.
The Strategy
The strategies proposed by radical feminism include separating the sexes, redefining private space and working relationships, challenging the oppressors, reclaiming women’s voices, and using technology to free women from the reproductive process.
The Problem
Marxist/socialist feminism believes that the root of the problem is patriarchy and capitalism’s role in society.
The Solution
Marxist/socialist feminism solutions focus on politics and economics. They contend that a solution must change the relationship between the public or production side of society and the private or reproduction side. This would include restructuring the division of labor and eliminating the separation between paid and unpaid work.
The Strategy
Marxist/socialist feminism strategies include strengthening the connection between home and workplace, establishing more autonomous women’s organizations, increasing women’s representation in politics, and working towards future political goals in what is known as prefigurative politics.
Point and Click Sociology
Baby Boomers (1946–1964):
Polling
Focus Groups
Mall Intercept
Phone Interviews
Expert Consultations
Audience Ratings
Gen X:
Consumer Satisfaction Surveys
Mystery Shopping
Observational Research
Social Research
Sensory Testing
CATI (Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing)
Gen Y or Millennials (1980–1994)
Generational Research
Online Forums
Discussion Boards
Video-Based
On-site Research
Ethnography
Video Diaries
Online Surveys
Gen Z (1995–2010)
Game Playing Research
Audience Response
Community forums
Co-creation Groups
Social Media Monitoring
Location Analysis
Cloud-based Research Community
Mobile Tracking
Big Data
Smartphone Polls
Tablet Interviews
App-based Research
Online Communities
Online Focus Groups
Multimedia Diaries