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Chapter 2: Sociological Inquiry

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Auguste Comte (1798-1857) developed the concept of sociology based on the methods used in the physical sciences.

scientific methodthe process a sociologist uses to develop and test theories,

American Sociological Association (ASA), a national organization for sociologists dedicated to advancing sociology as a scientific discipline and profession serving the public good,

peer reviewa process by which research is evaluated by a group of experts in the specific subject area.

hypothesis, an educated guess about a relationship between two or more situations, events, or factors

independent variablea factor that causes a change in another variable,

dependent variablea factor that is changed by another variable, are identified.

validitythe extent that the study measures what it claims to measure

operational definitiona clear, concise, and observable measure of the variable

reliability, the extent to which a study yields the same result in repeated studies.

quantitative research designdata collection that focuses on exploring correlations by using systematic, numerical, and other objective measures to generalize across groups of people

qualitative research designdata collection using interviews, fieldwork, observation, photos, text, and other subjective measures

representative samplea subset of the population whose characteristics accurately reflect those of the larger population from which it is drawn.

Institutional Review Board (IRB), a committee that reviews research proposals to protect the rights and welfare of human participants in research

informed consenta signed statement by participants indicating full knowledge of the risks involved, and acknowledgment of the procedures to withdraw from the study at any time willingly

Anonymityconcealing the identities of participants within the research project

confidentialityguarding who has the right of access to the data provided by the participants

Step 1: Define the Question or Problem

Step 2: Review the Literature

Step 3: Develop Hypotheses

Step 4: Choose a Research Design and Methods

Step 5: Collect the Data

Step 6: Analyze the Data

Step 7: Develop Conclusions

Step 8: Report Results and Pose New Questions

Secondary Analysis Pros:Existing data is plentiful and study can be conducted quickly.

cons: Available data may not fit research questions

Surveys

Pros: Cost-effective and convenient

Cons: Inflexible design and potential low response rate

Experiments

Pros: More control over design and stronger validity and reliability

Cons: Inability to generalize data

Longitudinal Studies

Pros:Provides broad and detailed data

Cons:Expensive and requires a multi-year commitment

secondary analysisthe use of data previously collected for other purposes.

surveya series of questions used to extract specific information from respondents

experimentthe use of two or more groups in which one group is exposed to a factor being examined

experimental groupthe study subjects exposed to the independent variable

control groupthe study subjects who are not exposed to the independent variable and are used as a reference group.

longitudinal designthe repeated observation of the same subjects over a duration of time

In-depth Interviews

Pros: Ability to explore different angles and levels

Cons: Focuses on individuals and transcribing field notes can be time-consuming

Participant Observation

Pros: Unrestricting access to observe social behavior

Cons: Difficult to document details and can potentially be unethical

Focus Groups

Pros: Ease of implementation and quick results

Cons: Groupthink can occur and moderators can skew the results

in-depth interviewa one-on-one open-ended method that probes for deeper meaning and understanding of the responses of the interviewee

participation observationalso called participant observation, a method in which the researcher takes part in the social phenomenon being studied

ethnographya descriptive account of social life and culture in a particular social system derived from the researcher being embedded over time within a group, organization, or community.

focus groupa small group interview or guided discussion using a moderator to gain insight into the participants

groupthinkthe tendency of group members to yield to the desire for consensus rather than expressing individual or alternative ideas

content analysisa systematic method of assigning codes to text, video, music, and other media to analyze and infer patterns.

The quantitative approach seeks to quantify data and generalize results from a sample to the population of interest.

Qualitative research aims to uncover the underlying reasons, motivations, opinions, and prevalent trends among individuals, groups, and artifacts.

Sustainabilitythe idea that current and future generations should have equal or greater access to social, economic, and environmental resources

General Social Survey (GSS)a national survey on contemporary American society to monitor and explain trends and constants in attitudes, behaviors, and attributes

snowball sampling, a process in which people in the group being studied introduce the researcher to other people to study

time diary methoda research method in which subjects track their actions at various points in time over several days.

Hawthorne effectthe tendency of people to change their behavior when they know they are being watched.

ethicsprinciples of conduct about how you are supposed to behave in a given situation.

debriefinga follow-up review of the researchfor his subjects to gain insight into the conclusions drawn from the study.

code of ethicsa set of guidelines of appropriate behavior established by an organization for its members to follow

value neutrality, also known as objectivitythe effort to eliminate bias from the research

sample of conveniencea research sample based on the ease of accessibility of the research subjects.

case studyan in-depth analysis of a particular person, place, or event over a significant period.

Anna Julia Cooper (1858-1964) was a prominent African American author and educator. She was born into slavery, obtained her Ph.D. from the Sorbonne in Paris, and wrote A Voice from the South: By A Woman from the South

Beatrice Potter Webb (1858-1943) was an English sociologist whose tutors included British social theorist Herbert Spencer. Webb was a researcher and taught sociology. She coauthored eleven books in conjunction with her husband, Sidney, and was instrumental in the British welfare system’s social reform

Sophonisba Breckinridge (1866-1948) was born into the Kentucky elite, attended Wellesley College, received her law degree, and was the first woman admitted to the Kentucky bar association. Breckinridge worked with the Chicago Hull-House project and eventually became a dedicated academic who wrote extensively on family and public welfare issues. Breckinridge went on to cofound the University of Chicago’s School of Social Service Administration.

Marianne Weber (1870-1954) was an important figure in the German feminist movement. She authored nine sociology and social analysis books and was the first woman elected to the German parliament.