Auguste Comte (1798-1857) developed the concept of sociology based on the methods used in the physical sciences.
scientific method, the process a sociologist uses to develop and test theories,
American Sociological Association (ASA), a national organization for sociologists dedicated to advancing sociology as a scientific discipline and profession serving the public good,
peer review, a process by which research is evaluated by a group of experts in the specific subject area.
hypothesis, an educated guess about a relationship between two or more situations, events, or factors
independent variable, a factor that causes a change in another variable,
dependent variable, a factor that is changed by another variable, are identified.
validity, the extent that the study measures what it claims to measure
operational definition, a clear, concise, and observable measure of the variable
reliability, the extent to which a study yields the same result in repeated studies.
quantitative research design, data collection that focuses on exploring correlations by using systematic, numerical, and other objective measures to generalize across groups of people
qualitative research design, data collection using interviews, fieldwork, observation, photos, text, and other subjective measures
representative sample, a subset of the population whose characteristics accurately reflect those of the larger population from which it is drawn.
Institutional Review Board (IRB), a committee that reviews research proposals to protect the rights and welfare of human participants in research
informed consent, a signed statement by participants indicating full knowledge of the risks involved, and acknowledgment of the procedures to withdraw from the study at any time willingly
Anonymity, concealing the identities of participants within the research project
confidentiality, guarding who has the right of access to the data provided by the participants
Step 1: Define the Question or Problem
Step 2: Review the Literature
Step 3: Develop Hypotheses
Step 4: Choose a Research Design and Methods
Step 5: Collect the Data
Step 6: Analyze the Data
Step 7: Develop Conclusions
Step 8: Report Results and Pose New Questions
Secondary Analysis Pros:Existing data is plentiful and study can be conducted quickly.
cons: Available data may not fit research questions
Surveys
Pros: Cost-effective and convenient
Cons: Inflexible design and potential low response rate
Experiments
Pros: More control over design and stronger validity and reliability
Cons: Inability to generalize data
Longitudinal Studies
Pros:Provides broad and detailed data
Cons:Expensive and requires a multi-year commitment
secondary analysis, the use of data previously collected for other purposes.
survey, a series of questions used to extract specific information from respondents
experiment, the use of two or more groups in which one group is exposed to a factor being examined
experimental group, the study subjects exposed to the independent variable
control group, the study subjects who are not exposed to the independent variable and are used as a reference group.
longitudinal design, the repeated observation of the same subjects over a duration of time
In-depth Interviews
Pros: Ability to explore different angles and levels
Cons: Focuses on individuals and transcribing field notes can be time-consuming
Participant Observation
Pros: Unrestricting access to observe social behavior
Cons: Difficult to document details and can potentially be unethical
Focus Groups
Pros: Ease of implementation and quick results
Cons: Groupthink can occur and moderators can skew the results
in-depth interview, a one-on-one open-ended method that probes for deeper meaning and understanding of the responses of the interviewee
participation observation, also called participant observation, a method in which the researcher takes part in the social phenomenon being studied
ethnography, a descriptive account of social life and culture in a particular social system derived from the researcher being embedded over time within a group, organization, or community.
focus group, a small group interview or guided discussion using a moderator to gain insight into the participants
groupthink, the tendency of group members to yield to the desire for consensus rather than expressing individual or alternative ideas
content analysis, a systematic method of assigning codes to text, video, music, and other media to analyze and infer patterns.
The quantitative approach seeks to quantify data and generalize results from a sample to the population of interest.
Qualitative research aims to uncover the underlying reasons, motivations, opinions, and prevalent trends among individuals, groups, and artifacts.
Sustainability, the idea that current and future generations should have equal or greater access to social, economic, and environmental resources
General Social Survey (GSS), a national survey on contemporary American society to monitor and explain trends and constants in attitudes, behaviors, and attributes
snowball sampling, a process in which people in the group being studied introduce the researcher to other people to study
time diary method, a research method in which subjects track their actions at various points in time over several days.
Hawthorne effect, the tendency of people to change their behavior when they know they are being watched.
ethics, principles of conduct about how you are supposed to behave in a given situation.
debriefing, a follow-up review of the research, for his subjects to gain insight into the conclusions drawn from the study.
code of ethics, a set of guidelines of appropriate behavior established by an organization for its members to follow
value neutrality, also known as objectivity, the effort to eliminate bias from the research
sample of convenience, a research sample based on the ease of accessibility of the research subjects.
case study, an in-depth analysis of a particular person, place, or event over a significant period.
Anna Julia Cooper (1858-1964) was a prominent African American author and educator. She was born into slavery, obtained her Ph.D. from the Sorbonne in Paris, and wrote A Voice from the South: By A Woman from the South
Beatrice Potter Webb (1858-1943) was an English sociologist whose tutors included British social theorist Herbert Spencer. Webb was a researcher and taught sociology. She coauthored eleven books in conjunction with her husband, Sidney, and was instrumental in the British welfare system’s social reform
Sophonisba Breckinridge (1866-1948) was born into the Kentucky elite, attended Wellesley College, received her law degree, and was the first woman admitted to the Kentucky bar association. Breckinridge worked with the Chicago Hull-House project and eventually became a dedicated academic who wrote extensively on family and public welfare issues. Breckinridge went on to cofound the University of Chicago’s School of Social Service Administration.
Marianne Weber (1870-1954) was an important figure in the German feminist movement. She authored nine sociology and social analysis books and was the first woman elected to the German parliament.