Notes: American sociologist W. I. Thomas (1863–1947) developed the definition of the situation, an individual’s interpretation of the social setting, and stated that the complex interpretations of the situation are not always interpreted accurately. Thomas’ famous theorem, “If men define their situations as real, they are real in the consequences,” indicates that even though we may not be aware of our misinterpretation of the situation, we act as if it is real (Thomas and Thomas 1928). This means we may not always correctly interpret the social context, but we think we do and act based on our interpretations.
social interaction, interpersonal relationships between two or more persons (C-19), you process information, and many elements are open for interpretation. Sometimes we struggle to convey meaning, and other times we fail to understand what others are trying to communicate.
The third process involves an ongoing social attribution, an explanation of how others appear, behave, or are motivated, which involves an interpretation of an interaction and how it causes you to think and behave. It is the inferences people make about the causes of events and behaviors.
fundamental attribution error, the bias of attributing our behavior to our circumstances and others’ behavior to their character.
Ethnomethodology, the study of people’s methods as it relates to the formation of society (HP), originated with Harold Garfinkel (1917–2011). Ethnomethodology states that social interactions occur due to unstated and underlying presumptions that form a consensus among members of society.
He termed this technique breaching, purposely violating social norms to examine an individual’s reactions.
Mead’s student at the University of Chicago, compiled his writings and further developed his ideas into a more systematic approach. He coined the term “symbolic interaction” and defined it:
- people act toward things based on the meaning those things have for them
- these meanings are derived from social interaction and modified through interpretation
dramaturgy, the theory that we are all actors on the stage of life and we divide our world based on what we let others see or not see of us (HP). It is a practical and comprehensive explanation of why we “act” the way we do in everyday life
wo additional Goffmanian terms you are probably already familiar with are saving and losing face. Goffman wrote about face work, the efforts exerted by both actors during an interaction to get through unanticipated events without casting an undesirable light or disrupting the relationship of the participants (HP), and how we all participate in it (Goffman 1967).
A third symbolic interaction theory is social exchange, the process by which social decisions are based on perceived costs and benefits. Sociologist George Homans established the theory in the 1950s, and Peter Blau, Richard Emerson, Karen Cook, and others further developed this perspective in the 1980s and viewed social structures as being comprised of the combination of exchanges and networks (Cook and Emerson 1987; Emerson 1976; Blau 1964; Homans 1958). The exchange theory indicates that social interactions are a process of negotiated exchanges between parties similar to economic exchanges. If you purchase an item and think you paid a fair price, you will be satisfied with the exchange.
Once the outcome is calculated, a Comparison Level (CL) is determined. This is a standard of what the individual expects in the relationship based on experiences with and observations of other relationships.
Outcome
Greater Than or Less Than
Comparison Level or Comparison Level for Alternatives
Relationship Status
- Doubt role commitments
- Seek alternatives
- Turning point
- Create an ex-role
Family, government, education, religion, and economics are examples of social institutions, organizational systems that link individuals to the larger society (HP).
Social groups, two or more individuals connected by common bonds and shared social relations, are basic elements of society. Sociologist Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929) divided social groups into primary groups, small-scale, intimate face-to-face long-lasting associations, and secondary groups, large-scale, impersonal, task-focused, and time-limited associations (Cooley 1909). Primary groups are small-scale and share personal and lasting relationships. Examples include family members, childhood friends, and intimate partners. Ideally, all of these interactions consist of personal and lasting relationships that provide security and meaning among its members.
While most of your social interactions occur in either primary or secondary groups, another important element of interaction consists of social networks, groups of individuals and organizations that are connected to one another. Social networks provide ties between individuals and groups, helping maintain stability within society
he dictates about prescriptive or proscriptive emotions are known as feeling rules, norms about which emotions are appropriate to display in a given situation (HP). Every society has feeling rules about how people show their emotions and what emotions are acceptable or unacceptable to express.
This is known as emotion labor, a worker’s regulation of personal feelings in an effort to set an emotional tone for customers in a business setting (HP).
Types of Harassment
Description
Sexual Harassment
Any welcome sexual conduct deemed offensive by the recipient. It can be verbal, physical, or sexual in nature.
Racial Harassment
Unwelcome verbal or physical behavior directed towards an individual(s) based on their race or national origin.
Personal Harassment
Bullying, rejecting, humiliating, intimidating, and uncivil conduct directed towards someone based on personal difference.
Sexual Orientation Harassment
Unwanted verbal, physical, and sexual conduct directed towards someone based on their sexual orientation.
Disability Harassment
Negative physical or verbal behavior directed towards an individual based on their mental or physical ability.
Age Harassment
Hurtful physical and verbal actions directed at a person based on their age.
It is important to note that a person can experience multiple types of harassment. A young Black woman may encounter both sexual and racial harassment at the same time, while an older Jewish man who walks with a cane might simultaneously experience personal harassment, disability harassment, and age harassment.
Women are more likely to experience street harassment than men. Research indicates that 65 percent of women and 25 percent of men encounter some type of street harassment throughout their lifetime (Stop Street Harassment 2022). LGBTQ+ men and low-income individuals reported higher incidents of street harassment than other groups, and 50 percent of victims — both male and female — indicate that harassment started around the age of 17 (Stop Street Harassment 2022). Street harassment can also vary by race, as shown in Figure 5.4.2.
Reality is about perception. This principle was first set forth by W.I. Thomas and Dorothy Swain Thomas in 1928 and is known as the Thomas theorem, the idea that if we think something is real, then it is indeed real to us. Consider for a moment the friends you hang out with at the student union, library, or nightclub.
Pros of Social Networking
Cons of Social Networking
Information can be spread quickly
Relationships can be strengthened and make new friends
Heavy users tend to have lower grades
It has helped create thousands of jobs in the technology industry
It can increase levels of stress in offline relationships
Social networking offers an outlet for shy or socially isolated individuals
Users have less face-to-face interaction with others
It can harm employee activity because people spend time online instead of working
Users are more likely to be prone to social isolation in the first place
(ProCon.org 2017)
Still, social networks allow us to transcend our reality and communicate across space and time with friends and foes worldwide. But is this actually social interaction? While it is not the type of interaction commonly practiced before the advent of computers and cell phones, it can involve an interpersonal relationship between two or more persons. Taking it a step further and referencing the Thomas theorem about perception and reality, we have to conclude yes, it is social interaction. Social networks are made up of people who share a community, and as such, their definition of social interaction is based on their perceptions of the reality in those communities. Given that social networks are here to stay for the foreseeable future, our definition of social interaction will need to continue to adapt to the social changes we incorporate into our lives.