1.2.2: Describe how Martineau, Addams, Du Bois, and Merton recognized social structures in their research, writings, or practice of sociology.
Founding Sociologists
Many early sociologists studied social structures, such as the American values system, the educational system, and bureaucracy. Harriet Martineau, Jane Addams, W. E. B. Du Bois, and Robert Merton are sociologists who made significant contributions by analyzing the rapidly changing social structures in the U.S. It is important to note that while those in power (White men) were most often recognized for their work (or recognized each otheru2019s work), they were not the only ones who contributed to the discipline of sociology, as you can see from the following photo gallery. Hover your mouse over the photos to learn more.
Harriet Martineau: An u201cOutsideru2019su201d View of America
Harriet Martineau (1802-1876), an Englishwoman and the first female sociologist, visited the U.S. for a period of two years and later published Society in America (1837), which detailed American social structures, such as the political system, government, economy, and religion. She wrote, u201cWhen one studies a society, one must focus on all its aspects, including key political, religious, and social institutions.u201d Much of her observations while in the U.S. were focused on the American value system. She questioned whether Americans actually demonstrated observable social patterns of behavior that matched the espoused value system. Her research on social structures in America was significant, especially since she provided an u201coutsideru2019su201d look at the American culture (Martineau and Chapman 1877). Martineau focused on gender, racial, and class tensions with the goal of helping subordinate groups. This is another example of how early sociologists practiced applied sociology, much as Jane Addams did in the U.S.
Jane Addams: The Hull House
Jane Addamsu2019 (1860-1935) work and lectures give her the distinction of being an applied sociologist, although she did not have a formal sociology degree. In 1889, she founded the Hull House, a settlement house that provided social services primarily for immigrants in Chicago. Addams recognized that the social structures within Chicago, including the government, education, and healthcare systems, were not supportive of the needs of poor immigrants. To remedy this, Addams established a safety net of social services. Originally, the Hull House offered educational classes for preschoolers and adults, a library, a gym, a coffee house, and clubs for older children (Knight 2010). Unfortunately, it closed in 2012 due to financial problems (Schulte 2012). Addams was a charter member of the American Sociological Society in 1905. Her work for international peace led her to be the first American woman to receive the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931 (Knight 2010).
W. E. B. Du Bois: A Civil Rights Activist and Scholar
W. E. B. Du Bois (1868-1963) was the first African American to earn a Ph.D. from Harvard University (1895) and co-founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909. He taught at Atlanta University until age 76 and remained a civil rights activist and scholar into his 90s. Du Bois challenged the social structures within American society that perpetuated racism and discrimination in social institutions, such as the workplace, military, and education. His work is associated with conflict theory. He advocated the concept of the u201ctalented tenth,u201d which encouraged the top 10 percent of Black men to pursue higher education, become writers about race relations, and be directly involved in social change (Tuttle 1973). Du Bois is unique in that his impact on issues of race and social structures spanned 75 years, and his work significantly influenced the Civil Rights movements for African Americans.
Robert Merton: A Functionalist Sociologist
Robert Merton (1910-2003) is one of Americau2019s most influential social scientists and sociologists and is noted as instrumental in formalizing the functionalist theory in his writings. In 1949, he published Social Theory and Social Structure (Merton 1968), which partly focuses on defining and categorizing bureaucratic structures. Weber, in Economy and Society (1922), popularized the term bureaucracy u2014 a hierarchical authority structure that uses task specialization, operates on the merit principle, and behaves with impersonality (HP) (Weber 1968). Merton identifies bureaucracies as social structures, describing them as formal, rationally organized social structures consisting of a hierarchy of offices, authority, and formal relationships. In some circumstances, this can lead to bureaucratic red tape u2014 adherence to excessive regulation and conformity that prevents decision-making and change (C-19) u2014 occurring in government and large corporations.
Now that you have been introduced to some of the early sociologists and histories behind sociology, letu2019s examine how this all relates to your life today.