monotheistic, the belief or worship of a single god.
polytheistic, the belief or worship of more than one god? Japanese Shintoism is based on kami, ancient gods, and spirits, which take the form of wind, mountains, rocks, and fertility.
religiosity, the beliefs and behaviors associated with transcendent or spiritual concerns (HP), in America as megachurches, Protestant churches with an average of 2,000 or more persons in weekly attendance
In general, mainline churches exhibit the following characteristics:
- More likely to endorse same-sex marriage in the church.
- Hold more lenient views on extramarital sex.
- Confess fewer exclusivist views of eternal salvation.
- Focus more on Christian social relief rather than Christian moral teachings.
Emile Durkheim in 1912. Read the definition slowly to gauge your reaction.
A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden — beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called a Church, all those who adhere to them (Durkheim 1912).
n 1844, Karl Marx provided an additional definition of religion for consideration.
The foundation of irreligious criticism is: Man makes religion, religion does not make man. Religion is, indeed, the self-consciousness and self-esteem of man who has either not yet won through to himself, or has already lost himself again. But man is no abstract being squatting outside the world. Man is the world of man – state, society. Religious suffering is, at one and the same time, the expression of real suffering and a protest against real suffering. Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people (Marx 1844).
Sociologist Peter Berger, who taught at Boston University, provides a third definition of religion. He defined religion as the following:
The audacious attempt to conceive the entire universe as humanly significant (Berger 1967).
Islam, the second largest world religion, is a monotheistic religion in which adherents believe in the one and only supreme God, or Allah. The religious practices are described in the five pillars of Islam — the testimony of faith, prayer, giving zakat (support of the needy), fasting during the month of Ramadan, and the pilgrimage to Mecca once in a lifetime for those who are able.
fundamentalism, strict adherence to conservative religious ideology.
Sharia, the revealed word of God based on the Qur’an serving as the body of Islam law.
- National religiosity: Individuals identify with the national or majority religion.
- Family: The social learning process is a powerful force within the family that guides your religious preferences.
- Peers: Your friends’ religiosity is a predictor of your religiosity (Gunnoe and Moore 2002).
- School: The level of religiosity within your school impacts your religiosity (Regenerus et al. 2004).
enominations, a distinct group of churches with a common doctrine and name,
ather than converting to a different religion, you are much more likely to become unaffiliated with religion, commonly known as becoming a “None.” One-third of American adults under 30 now claim the status of “None.” The religiously unaffiliated now account for 26 percent of the adult population, up from 16 percent in 2007
sacred, things set apart and requiring special religious treatment (HP), and the profane, the ordinary and familiar realm of everyday existence.
social cohesion, bonds between members that maintain stability in society
The second function of religion identified by Durkheim is social control, the informal and formal regulation of members of society to gain conformity and compliance
Emerson, Mirola, and Monahan (2011) provide a list of functions applicable to every religion:
- Religion provides comfort and quells dissatisfaction.
- Religion builds and strengthens communities of people.
- Religion assures its followers that there is a larger cosmic order.
First, in the early 1960s, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled organized prayer and Bible reading unconstitutional in public schools.
Second, the Hobby Lobby Supreme Court case ruled in favor of allowing corporations with religious owners from having to provide health insurance that pays for the coverage of contraception (Appelbaum 2014). Third, a 43-foot tall cross in La Jolla, California, was on federal property at a Korean War Memorial.
patriarchy, lines of descent traced through the paternal side of the family and characterized by male dominance (HP), and heterosexism, prejudice or discriminatory attitudes and behaviors against homosexuals and homosexuality
Most Muslim women view wearing a face scarf (hijab) as being their choice and do not view it as being suppressed by men or their religion.
This is true as most Muslim women do not view wearing the hijab to indicate that men or their religion suppress them.
education, the transmission of knowledge, skills, values, and beliefs from one group to another, may involve social institutions specifically set up for the process or families and small groups who behave relatively independently. By comparison, schooling, the formal educational process in institutions such as schools and centers of learning (
The Supreme Court ruled that maintaining segregated school systems for Black and White students was unconstitutional. In this case, the plaintiff was Oliver Brown, the father of Linda, a little girl who had to walk six blocks to catch a bus to attend an all-Black school when an all-White school was just seven blocks from her home.
A New York state law required schools to start with the Pledge of Allegiance and a nondenominational prayer emphasizing dependence on God. A six-to-one ruling found that school-sponsored prayer violates the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. Since religious diversity exists in the U.S., it was unconstitutional to endorse any particular belief system.
Students in Des Moines, Iowa, wore black armbands to symbolize their protest over the war in Vietnam. Their school told them to remove the armbands. When the students refused, they were suspended from school. The Supreme Court ruled that wearing the armbands constituted free speech. A student’s right to free speech is constitutional if it does not interfere with the educational process
Three men of the Old Order Amish religion were prosecuted for not requiring their children to attend school until they were 16 years old, as required by law in Wisconsin. The court ruled unanimously in favor of the Amish men, stating that the free exercise of religion under the First Amendment outweighed compelling the children to attend high school.
After 14-year-old “T.L.O.” was caught smoking in school, the principal searched her purse and found marijuana. T.L.O. admitted to selling drugs in school. After a trial and being placed on probation, T.L.O. appealed, arguing that the search of her purse constituted unreasonable search and seizure, violating her Fourth Amendment Rights. The Supreme Court ruled that schools may search student property if reasonable suspicion exists that the student has broken a school rule or committed a crime.
A journalist with the school newspaper in St. Louis, Missouri, wanted to publish a story on divorce and teen pregnancy. The principal refused to allow the story to run, and the student journalist sued to argue that their freedom of expression had been violated. The Supreme Court ruled that school newspapers are for educational purposes, not public free speech forums. Schools may censor the material published in school newspapers.
A 7th-grade student in Vernonia, Oregon, wanted to play football, but his parents refused to let him follow the required drug test, arguing that he had never taken drugs and shouldn’t be required to prove it with a drug test. The court ruled that to ensure student and school campus safety, schools can mandate drug tests of student-athletes.
In a six to two vote, the court upheld Michigan voters’ ban on using race as a factor in college admissions. This case directly contrasted a 2003 Supreme Court ruling that supported a college’s right to use race as an aspect of student admissions.
If the U.S. spent more on education, our students would fare better in comparison to students in other nations.
This is false, as spending more per pupil does not necessarily increase the likelihood of educational success.
teacher expectancy effect, teachers’ perception of students has an effect on their academic achievement.
hidden curriculum, the unintentional education of students in the ideals and ways of being in society
school choice, programs allowing students to transfer to schools outside those assigned to them by their school district.
| School Vouchers | A program that allows parents to apply some or all of their child’s public school tax revenue towards private school education. |
| Charter Schools | Publicly funded academic institutions that operate independently of school districts must comply with state academic standards. Charter schools are typically chosen by parents based on their ability to offer alternative educational models. |
| Private Schools | Schools that are independent of local and state academic standards. Typically, private schools have a curriculum based on a particular religious or academic emphasis and offer specialized learning. |
| Homeschooling | Homeschooling options vary tremendously around the country but generally involve the parents taking responsibility for their child’s education at home instead of in a public or private school setting. Depending on the state’s requirements, this option may or may not involve the parents using a professionally approved curriculum. |
| Online Learning |
This option involves students following state-approved educational material online instead of inside a traditional classroom. Online learning may be done full or part-time and requires students to connect virtually with their teachers. |
literacy, the ability to use reading and writing skills to shape one’s world,
What would motivate a student to drop out of school? The top reasons include the following:
- feeling that the classes were boring and not being motivated to work on school
- family issues like teen pregnancy or the need to get a job to help the family
- too many absences and or failing classes
- family and friends being unsupportive of school
- didn’t feel safe or could not get along with others
tracking, the practice of schools grouping students based on academic achievement.
illustrates that women are graduating college at a higher rate than men. The gender gap for the percent of adults ages 25–34 with a bachelor’s degree is widening. Forty-six percent of women have a degree compared to 36 percent of men
Enrollment in two-year, four-year, and advanced degree programs increased 30 percent between 2001 and 2015
Between 1980 and 2014, the average college tuition increased by 260 percent (Jackson 2015). In 2021, the average American college student graduated with more than $39,351 in student loan debt
Distance learning, college-level schooling that occurs online at a time and place convenient to the student,