Notes:
Socialization and the Sociological Perspective
everyday social interactions (the micro or individual level) and at the structural level (the macro or societal level),
you experience socialization, the process by which individuals learn the appropriate attitudes and behaviors within a culture
(HP). At the micro level, the focus is on the self, an individual’s nature and identity resulting from reflections on social interactions. The self is socially constructed through your conversations and social activities.
At the macro level, social institutions such as the family, religion, and school are influential in the socialization process.
sociologist emphasize that socialization tremendously impacts who you are today and who you will become. Other disciplines, such as psychology and biology, emphasize the influence of genetics. This debate is often referred to as nature (genetic influences) versus nurture (social influences).
Nature vs. Nurture
Were you born with your personhood intact (nature), or was it gradually formed through your social interactions with your parents, teachers, and friends (nurture)? Most psychologists, behaviorists, and sociologists conclude that the answer is a combination of nature and nurture. Within sociology, the focus is on social and environmental conditions rather than heredity and genetic predispositions
twins raised apart and reunited decades later have many similarities, and adopted children seem to have more in common with their biological parents than with their adoptive siblings. This suggests that nature must have a significant role in the development of self. But does that mean nature is more influential than nurture?
evidence suggests that nature serves a pivotal role in our development. But evidence also indicates that nurture is just as influential in many areas. As we discussed, behavior, racial views, conformity, and IQ can be attributed to one’s environment. There seems to be no easy answer to the debate. Sociologists accept that nature and nurture influence the development of the self but focus their research and writings on the importance of our social environment rather than biological explanations. For example, three of the most prominent micro-level sociologists, Mead, Cooley, and Goffman, wrote about nurture and the importance of social interaction in the development of self
Theories of the Self — Mead
late 1800s, and even more in the 1900s, social theorists began writing about the concept of the social self and developing new theories (Mead and Morris 1934; James 1918; Dewey 1910; Cooley 1902). The previously accepted idea was that the self is biologically derived and individually constructed, but the basic concept arose that the self is a compilation of social experiences and interactions. Therefore, the self and society are intertwined, and sociologists, such as George Herbert Mead, went so far as to say that there could not be a self without society
George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) was the first sociologist to focus on how the mind and self emerge from social interaction and the environment (Morris 1934).
Mead divided the self into the “I,” the unsocialized or acting self, made up of personal desires and needs, and the “me,” the social self, made up of the internalized attitudes of others.
The “me” is learned early in life through interactions with others and the environment.
The “I” distinguishes the self from others due to one’s spontaneity and impulses. Without the “I,” you would only be a reflection of the attitudes of the general society. The “I” reacts to the “me” in each social context and interaction. This interplay allows interactions to play a role in transforming your self. The self exists and develops through social experiences and is an entirely social phenomenon
All three stages demonstrate how the self develops in the context of our social experiences from birth to pre-adolescence. In the
preparatory stage, imitation of others, an infant merely imitates surrounding people. As infants grow, they use symbols such as gestures and words to communicate. Children in this stage are very self-centered, and the self has not developed.
The play stage, pretending to be other people, incorporates role-playing. Do you remember playing house or pretending to be a police officer? This stage involves assuming the perspective of others one at a time, and according to Mead, this is when children first begin to show signs of developing a self.
As a child, you assumed the individual roles of significant others, individuals who are important to the development of self, which meant you thought about how they wanted you to behave.
The game stage, taking the role of multiple people at one time, normally occurs before the age of 10. By this time, you are able to imagine what other members of society expect of you.
Mead labeled this the generalized other, the process of internalizing societal norms and expectations. This process continues for a lifetime. Although you are most often unaware of it, you have a kind of internal conversation with the generalized other each time you think about an action.
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The Looking-Glass Self — Cooley
looking-glass self, the process of imagining the reaction of others toward oneself (HP) (Cooley 1902). He states that we look to others to create an understanding of self. Here is how it works: first, we imagine how we seemingly appear to others, and next, we imagine the judgment of that appearance by others.
We develop components of our self by combining how we imagine we appear to others and their judgments of our appearance. The most important word in the process is “imagine.” Our imagination is not always accurate, which leads to an inaccurate perception of our self.
All of the phases of the looking-glass self can occur unconsciously in a matter of seconds during a social interaction, or you may mull over each phase and draw conclusions over an extended period of time. Regardless of their accuracy, each day, you use them to consciously and unconsciously make judgments that impact your self-concept and identity. The concept of the looking-glass self can be a useful tool for understanding your self in your daily social interactions.
- Imagine how you appear to others.
- Imagine the judgment of your appearance by others.
- Determine how the process influences your self by combining how you imagine you appear to others and their judgments of your appearance.
Does the looking-glass self work online? Absolutely. Although, you have much more control over the appearance you want to portray by what photos and content you post on social media, as you can choose to post just the photos you deem attractive. Research indicates that comments on your Facebook profile photo strongly affect your perceived physical, social, and professional attractiveness (Daniels 2016; Thorson 2014; Hong et al. 2012; Kim and Lee 2011). No matter how individuals package themselves with attractive self-presentations, it tends not to be very successful without validation from others. These findings reinforce that even online, others serve as a looking glass to validate us and help form our socialized self.
Mead and Cooley stress that the socialized self is socially constructed through day-to-day interactions and conclude that socialization occurs at the unconscious level. Cooley’s looking-glass self is easier to personally analyze and apply than the “I” and the “me” because it is more difficult to objectively separate the “I” and “me” within everyday interactions. The looking-glass self is more self-evident within interactions and focuses specifically on the self in self-perception and self-esteem.
The Structural Foundation of Society
agents of socialization, individuals, groups, and institutions that influence the attitudes and behaviors of members of society (C-19), are structural components of society that significantly influence who you are today and who you will become. These agents include family, peers, school, media, religion, work, and government. As an agent, the media has probably influenced what you wear, the television shows you watch, the music you listen to, and the products you buy. It is unlikely you are wearing starched jeans, a paisley shirt, and penny loafers to class today. More likely, you are wearing the same clothes and brands most students wear on campus, which is a simple indication of how the media influences college students’ attitudes and behaviors.
These agents of socialization all communicate standardized messages of what is acceptable and appropriate in our everyday lives. These invisible social forces help us learn the importance of conformity and the consequences of nonconformity. As we follow these societal messages, distinctive and stable arrangements of social patterns are formed within society. Therefore, socialization plays a vital role in developing social structures that provide societal stability and longevity. Let’s begin by considering the role family plays in the socialization and development of social structures.
The Family and Peers
socialization within families with social learning theory, the process of learning from one another in a social context as a result of observation and imitation. Developed by Albert Bandura, social learning theory contends that individuals learn and develop from watching others
Parents have strong influences in many areas. Your parents’ expectations and aspirations significantly impact your achievements, especially in academics.
Our parents are our most significant agents of socialization early in life until school, peers, and work begin to influence us heavily. One of parents’ biggest concerns is their child hanging around the wrong friends and caving into negative pressure from peer groups, social groups consisting of members with similar interests, social rank, and ages. Popular adolescents are labeled as high-status youth, those who are viewed as being popular among peers.There are two categories of high-status youth: those who are genuinely well-liked by their peers and engage in predominantly prosocial behaviors and those who are seen as popular but not necessarily well-liked
School and Work
hidden curriculum, the unintentional education of students in the ideals and ways of being in society. This hidden curriculum may have even influenced your college major
, women often excel in STEM classes but choose not to pursue careers in these fields. One reason for this disparity in the ratio of men versus women is that women tend to feel they do not belong in these fields. They do not see women equally represented in photos in their textbooks, and the majority of STEM teachers are men. Negative stereotypes about girls’ math abilities have been shown to lower girls’ test performance example of the hidden curriculum is that school serves as a social laboratory to help students figure out who they are and how to behave in a given situation. In elementary school, students begin to place themselves in the role of others, which leads them to understand how their actions impact their classmates. Mead’s generalized other, internalized in the “me,” is a major mechanism for social control within schools
Media
have impacted who you are today, and to what degree? The amount of media consumed by children and adolescents is staggering. In 2020, on average, 8- to 12-year-olds in the U.S. use nearly 4–6 hours’ worth of entertainment screen media per day, and teens use up to nine hours’ worth, not including time spent using screens for school or homework (AACAP 2020). In 2020, the total average time per day that adults spent consuming digital media was 7 hours and 50 minutes (Lukovitz 2021). Americans consumed five and a half hours of traditional media such as radio and television (eMarketer 2021). If we do the math, adults spend more than 13 hours daily with media. Americans no longer sit idly in front of the television. Now, half of viewers use their phone while watching TV to check Facebook, text friends, look up a website or information mentioned on TV, or vote for reality show contestants. Being connected to technology and media 24/7 has many impacts on children and adolescents.
Born in and after the 1990s, digital natives, individuals born after the widespread adoption of technology, are those individuals who have always experienced a digital world. On the other hand, your authors are digital immigrants, individuals born before the widespread adoption of technology. They did not grow up with current technologies and have had to learn and adapt to technology and social media later in life (Prensky 2001). Since today’s children and adolescents are digital natives, this 24/7 connectivity is possibly remapping their neural brain activity, referred to as neuroplasticity. The result is a brain used to distraction and multitasking and less capable of focusing for sustained periods. In Nicholas Carr’s (2010), The Shallows: What the Internet Is Doing to Our Brains, he argues that new media is changing the way our brains work, with accompanying side effects. First, the Internet is destroying our power of concentration and thus our interest in reading books. Second, due to the Internet’s superficiality, we are becoming intellectually shallow, and our brains are no longer fertile ground for contemplation and critical analysis. Thus, the Internet and social media have the potential to significantly alter the minds of individuals and the future of societies.
The amount of social media consumed, how children and adolescents use it, and the immediate and long-term effects of such consumption may be alarming to sociologists and other researchers. But it is important not to overlook the positive aspects of social media. For example, staying connected with friends and family, making new friends, and sharing pictures and ideas are just a few ways teenagers benefit from social media. Additional benefits for teenagers include:
- opportunities for online community, political, and philanthropic engagement
- accessing health information
- growth of ideas from the creation of blogs and videos, and
- fostering individual identity and unique social skills
Religion and Government
Although it can be argued that the influence of American religious institutions on society is declining and that fewer Americans are involved in civic engagement and politics, religion and government still play a significant role in your socialization. Even if you do not consider yourself religious, if you were born in the United States, you have been influenced by the Judeo-Christian values embedded in the American culture. If you practice a particular religion, such as Christianity or Islam, or participate in a specific church denomination (Baptist, Methodist, or nondenominational, etc.), religion (HP) has played a key role in your socialization process. The way you view your world is closely related to your religious perspectives.
Each religion also socializes its adherents through its moral code of conduct. The Bible has the Ten Commandments, Buddhism has the Five Precepts, and Sikhism is based on the Sikh Reht Maryada. Durkheim believed that all religions are designed to promote social cohesion and maintain social order, which is achieved primarily through moral codes of conduct (Durkheim 1912). Regardless of your religious devoutness, religion provides the backdrop for moral codes and many social norms to which society adheres.
addition to these moral codes, the government has legal codes that influence the socialization process for citizens within a community, state, or nation. Governments also influence their citizens beyond the obvious laws they impose. While the school as a social agent is discussed separately, the American educational system is primarily controlled and developed by federal and state agencies, which also influence citizens. For example, these agencies mandate healthier school lunches and require that vending machines be stocked with healthy choices. 
When Socialization Goes Wrong
While agents of socialization such as the family, peers, school, media, religion, work, and government are important to your social development, they can also negatively impact you in various ways.
As an agent of socialization, the family has a responsibility to ensure that their children’s social development includes learning the behavioral expectations of the larger society. When families, the media, religions, or governments have problems doing their jobs, the consequences can be far more devastating than bad table manners.
Family Socialization: From Neglect to Protect
Not all families socialize their children the same way, and not all socialization that takes place in the family is necessarily good. Family violence is a prime example of how socialization within a family can manifest as a social problem. Children who witness and are victims of violence may resort to violence when they are adults. It is important to realize that not all abused children grow up to be abusers. However, research indicates that, when it comes to family violence, a strong correlation exists between your socialization experience as a child and your behavior as an adult.
Sometimes families fail to socialize their children to the standards considered the norm in society. What happens when families completely fail to socialize with their children? extreme cases result in what sociologists call feral children,children who are isolated and neglected such that they are raised without socialization.
TRUE:The social class of the parents plays a key role in the socialization of children.
gender of the child can also play a role in how a family socializes their children. The lessons parents give their daughters about self-protection are often quite different from the ones they give their sons
Too Much Media?
Forty-two percent of children under eight have their own tablet and spend two hours and 18 minutes with screen media (Common Sense 2018). An American Academy of Pediatrics study reported that 90 percent of parents said their children under age two watch some form of electronic media. By age three, one-third of children have a TV in their bedroom and watch TV one to two hours per day (American Academy of Pediatrics 2011). The study reported the following:
- There is a lack of evidence supporting the educational and developmental benefits of using media for children under two years of age.
- There are potential adverse health and developmental effects of media use for children under two years of age.
- There are adverse effects of parental media use (background media) on children under two years of age.
Television viewing has also been found to impact children’s sleep quality negatively children get older, the amount of time they spend consuming media increases. 
Social Control Gone Wrong
Although the media and family are important agents of socialization, they can become problematic in situations of excess consumption or neglect.
. Problems arise when a religion becomes a total institution, an isolated group with strict rules and regulations whose goal is to control every aspect of its members’ lives. In addition, if the religion requires resocialization, an identity transformation in which social norms and roles are altered or replaced, other problems may develop.
degradation ceremony, an event, ceremony, or rite of passage used to break down people and make them more accepting of a total institution. Examples of basic training degradation include being yelled at in front of the group and forced to do repetitive exercises. The point of these activities is not only to break the recruit of what the military deems bad habits but also to strengthen their bond with other soldiers so that they socially identify with their new group, the U.S. military.
People’s willingness to go through the difficulties of boot camp is an example of anticipatory socialization, the process of learning different behaviors or activities in an effort to aspire to group membership. For most, completing basic training is a rite of passage, a ceremony or ritual used to mark a change in age or social status, and the start of their military career. Unsurprisingly, in some instances, the efforts of a total institution to resocialize can go too far and end up doing more harm than good.
Functionalist Theory: Each of the agents, such as the family, peers, and the media, serve a function in the process of socialization. An agent can also create dysfunction in society. Media is a contributing factor in the obesity epidemic as children and youth spend more time playing video games and engaging in social media
Conflict Theory: The social problems that occur with socialization often involve a struggle between those with power and those without power. This imbalance of power leaves individuals vulnerable to abuse from the more powerful in a group or society. Historically, and even today in many countries as well as in the U.S., gender socialization perpetuates inequities such as differences in pay for men and women and the inability of women to move up the corporate ladder as quickly as men.
Symbolic Interactionism: The family significantly impacts the process of socialization of children. Do you know parents who are extremely encouraging and supportive of their children? Do you know others who are negative or constantly nagging? Parenting skills are most often learned from our parents and replicated, both the negative and positive traits.
Applying the Sociological Imagination to the Stages of Life
As we have seen with previous examples of social problems, an individual’s socialization is a process of learning that occurs within the context of a group. The individual and group cannot be separated. The sociological imagination allows us to view socialization from the standpoint of the individual and the group. It also enables us to examine personal troubles and public issues that may arise with socialization. In the process, you should gain a better understanding of how and why we act the way we do as members of the larger society.
Goffman’s Dramaturgy: A One-Act Play
dramaturgy, the theory that we are all actors on the stage of life, and as such, we divide our world based on what we do and do not let the others see of us
Goffman’s theory, our world is divided into two areas. The first is what we let the world see, our front stage, a person’s public life that they reveal to the world. In juxtaposition, we try not to let the world see our backstage, a person’s private world that they choose not to reveal (C-19). As an example of the front and backstage of dramaturgy, consider the waitstaff experience in a restaurant. The front stage is the public area where the patrons sit and enjoy their meals. The restaurant employees work to ensure the public dining area is calm and inviting. On the other hand, the backstage of a restaurant is the kitchen. Whether dining at McDonald’s or a four-star establishment, restaurant kitchens are often the opposite of calm, with people scurrying, smoke billowing, and cooks yelling.
What would you consider front stage and backstage in relation to your social media activities?
A first date offers a perfect example of how you might separate your life into front and backstages. In most instances, a first date is a highly orchestrated event. You may make a concerted effort to act and look your best by selecting the right outfit, styling your hair, and strategically spraying your perfume or cologne. If your date involves going to a nice restaurant, you carefully peruse the menu for a selection that is not too filling, messy, or costly.Goffman’s theory of dramaturgy does not stop with the notions of front stage and backstage. He contends that the theory has a third component, the notion of impression management, an effort to control the impression others have of us. By engaging in impression management, we are not only being selective about what we reveal to the world but also making a decision, consciously or otherwise, about how much of our personal troubles we are willing to make public issues. The socialization process plays a key role in our understanding of what to keep private and what to make public.
Staging Behavior: Airport Security and Personal Space
Most people do not have the socialization issues Genie displayed because we are typically taught the difference between front stage (public) and backstage (private). But events in the 21st century have blurred the lines between front and backstage, making impression management increasingly difficult.
His research involved studying distance zones, the amount of space we are socialized to feel comfortable having between ourselves and others (HP). Hall identified four distance zones (C-19) in the United States:
- Intimate (0–18 inches): reserved for people who know you really well, such as your significant other, family, and close friends.
- Personal (18 inches–4 feet): reserved for less intimate social interactions like student and teacher, or therapist and patient.
- Social (4–12 feet): reserved for casual acquaintances and strangers.
- Public (12 feet and beyond): reserved for impersonal interactions like those involving public speakers and stage performances.
The Process of Becoming YOU
Learning to distinguish between the front and back stage and creating distance zones are all part of the social development that occurs throughout your lifetime. This development involves a sequence of changes resulting from interactions with various groups and organizations during your life. Think about your first day as a student of this introductory sociology course. You were probably unsure of the professor’s expectations until they were explained. Even after the explanation, you may have had questions addressed by the professor or another student in the course. The back-and-forth between explanation and question was an effort to learn the ways of the new group (in this case, your class) that you joined. Because you are constantly experiencing change as part of the aging and maturation process, you are always learning the ways or norms of one group or another. The experience of becoming you also involves adapting to technological changes that develop in the larger society. Through it all, socialization is a dynamic, ever-changing process, and the socialization experience changes throughout your life. Let’s take a moment to explore the different stages of socialization in the life course and how they have been impacted by societal changes over time.
The Life Course
This approach, known as the life course perspective, refers to a series of social changes that a person experiences over the course of their lifetime. Sociologists William Thomas and Florian Znaniecki first identified this perspective in the 1920s, using biographical information about Polish peasants to study the Polish immigrant experience in Europe and America (Mortimer and Shanahan 2003). The result of their research was a realization that, over time, an individual’s life experience follows a series of events that can be used to place that experience into a larger social context. Hover your mouse over the images to learn more.
Childhood — Typically from birth to 12 years of age. At this stage, the family is the primary agent of socialization. Childhood also involves the first experience of socialization by teachers in daycare, kindergarten, and elementary school.
Adolescence — Starting around age 13 until age 17, this stage continues to involve socialization by family, school, and work, but peer groups and media begin to play a stronger role in the individual’s life.
Young Adulthood — Covering ages 17 to 29, this stage is about increased levels of independence and eventually stepping out on your own. Socialization plays a key role in helping navigate the significant social changes of this stage. Many young adults delay getting married or having children until the next stage.
Middle Adulthood — Ranging in age from 30 to 65, many changes happen during this period, and consequently, a great deal of socialization occurs. Some changes may involve pursuing a career, getting married, raising children, changing careers, divorcing, sending kids off to college, coping with a spouse’s death, and planning for retirement.
Senior Adulthood — While the definition of the senior citizen has changed over the years, this category typically involves people over 65. For many people, dealing with health issues, moving into a senior care facility, and growing dependence on loved ones become overwhelming concerns.
While the life course perspective typically occurs in stages that follow a specific pattern, it is essential to remember that they are socially constructed. This means that while the chronological aspect of life may be universal, the social expectations and behaviors of each stage vary tremendously around the world based on each society’s norms.
Socialization and New Technologies
As we experience socialization and social change through the life course, the larger society is also changing. Technology is a prime example of how the larger society changes, and we, in turn, are socialized to the change. In the life course sequence, new technologies are more frequently used by younger people in the population. In 2013, approximately 25 percent of adults 65 and older owned a smartphone; in 2022, ownership rose to slightly more than 60 percent (Pew Research Center 2019; Faverio 2022). In comparison, 96 percent of Americans ages 18–29 own a smartphone. Why is there a disparity in technology use between younger and older generations? While the most obvious reason may be the lack of desire to learn new technology, research demonstrates that many seniors do not see the Internet as relevant to their lives (Zickuhr and Madden 2012). From a senior perspective, why learn how to pay your bills online when you’ve been using stamps to mail your bills for the last 40 years?